Louis Simpsons The Battle Formalist Criticism

Introduction Born on 27th March, 1923, Louis Aston Marantz Simpson is one of America’s best know poets. He has won many awards in his field, including the 1964’s Pulitzer Prize for Poetry. The latter was in recognition for one of his works, At The End of the Open Road. Born in Jamaica, his family migrated to the United States of America while he was 17.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Louis Simpson’s The Battle: Formalist Criticism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For two years (between 1943 and 1945), he fought for America during World War II. This experience shaped most of his works when he started writing after the war. He served as a messenger between his company’s headquarters and the soldiers fighting on the front line. Most of his poems and other works are narratives of his experiences as a messenger. The Battle is one of his well known poems that depict the experiences of a mes senger on the front line. In four stanzas and sixteen lines, Louis takes the reader through the horrors of war, which is the major theme of this poem. In this paper, the author is going to provide the reader with a critique of this poem. The poem will be critiqued using the formalist criticism theory. Among the issues that will be addressed in this critique is the structure and organization of the poem, the way the poem begins and how it proceeds from the beginning. The author will also look at how the poem ends, the plot of the work and how this plot is related to the structure of the poem. The Battle: Structure and Organization of the Poem The poem is structured in four stanzas and sixteen lines (Poetry365 1-16). Louis seems to be seeking for a balance in the structure of the poem. This is given the fact that each of the stanzas is made up of four lines, mimicking the four stanzas of the poem. This creates some semblance of proportionality between the stanzas and the whole poem. H owever, the structure of the lines is not uniform throughout the poem. For example, some of the lines are made of two sentences separated by a full stop, a case in point been the second line â€Å"Marched through a forest. Somewhere up ahead† (Poetry360 2). Others are made of single sentences separated by a comma, for example the first line â€Å"Helmet and rifle, pack and overcoat† (Poetry360 1). Still, other lines are made of a single, solid and unbroken sentence, for example the 6th line â€Å"into the clammy earth between the trees† (Poetry360 6). Beginning of the Poem Louis begins the poem by providing the reader with an imagery of a soldier. Though he does not mention the word soldier anywhere, the selection of words in the first line leaves no doubt that the poet is talking of a soldier. He begins by â€Å"Helmet and rifle, pack and overcoat† (Poetry360 1).Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The soldier described in this line is obviously headed for combat, and this is made clear by the inclusion of â€Å"rifle† in his cargo. It is also made clear that the weather is cold, and that is why the soldier carries an overcoat. It is probably in winter, and the soldier is headed to the battle line. Where does it go? The tone that Louis starts with in the first stanza is maintained throughout the poem for the larger part. For example, he starts by using imagery, and this appears in the other stanzas of the poem. For example, in the eleventh line, he talks of â€Å"†¦.The snow was black† (Poetry360 11). Snow is generally white, but by describing it as â€Å"black snow†, Louis conjures in the reader’s mind an image of snow with its purity interfered with by the flow of blood from the fallen and injured soldiers. The poem starts with a description of the soldier embarking from the camp and to the fr ont line. The poem continues to trace the journey of the soldier into the woods, towards the battle field. In the third stanza, Louis describes how the soldier, now on the front line, faces the â€Å"†¦.(the) shells and bullets (sweeping) the icy woods† (Poetry360 10). The poem paints a horrific picture of what the soldier goes through in the battle field. How does the Poem End? The poem ends with the persona telling the reader what they remembered about the battle. It appears that the persona is not involved in combat; he assumes the tone of a bystander. He describes the appearance of the soldiers, â€Å"The tiredness in (their) eyes, (and) how hands looked thin† (Poetry360 14). The only bright thin about the soldier’s appearance is the bright ember around their cigar. The poem closes with the line â€Å"†¦., and the bright ember (of the cigarette)/Would pulse with all the life there was within† (Poetry360 15, 16). This line creates an image of a soldier, who is as frail as the ember of the cigarette he is smoking. The Plot The poem gives the story of soldiers leaving the camp to go to the battle field. Armed with their rifles, they march through the forest, and towards the sound of thudding guns. The story given in this poem does not seem to paint a good picture regarding the battle. The poet describes scenes full of â€Å"black snow†, and if the black color can be taken as the color of coagulated blood on the snow, then it seems there was a lot of bloodshed. Relationship of the Poem’s Plot to its Structure Some comparisons can be drawn between the plot of the poem and its structure. As earlier indicated, the poem structure appears balanced, with four stanzas with four lines each. However, this is in contrast with the plot of the poem. There is nothing balanced about the life of the soldier, or the battle that is being fought. If there was balance in the society, maybe the war would have been unnecessary.Ad vertising We will write a custom essay sample on Louis Simpson’s The Battle: Formalist Criticism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, it can be said that the soldiers in the battle and the war in general, is aimed at achieving some balance in the society, balance like that of the poem’s structure. The contradiction between the poem’s structure and the plot extends to individual lines in the poem. For example, in describing the soldier going to war in line 1, the poet describes the soldier putting on his fatigues and taking his weapons from back to front. For example, one would expect the soldier to first put on the overcoat, then heist his pack on his soldiers, take the rifle and finally put on the helmet. But Louis does not see it this way. Instead, the soldier first wears the â€Å"Helmet (then takes the) rifle, pack and overcoat† (Poetry360 1). Conclusion In his poem The Battle, Louis describes soldiers going to the battle line, and what transpires there. The major theme in the poem is the horrors of war. This paper criticized the poem from a formalist perspective. Among the aspects of the poem addressed is the beginning and ending of the poem, the plot of the poem and how the poem is related to its structure. Works Cited Poetry365. The Battle, Louis Simpson. Poetry365. August 9, 2009. Web. This essay on Louis Simpson’s The Battle: Formalist Criticism was written and submitted by user Carolyn S. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The 4 cornerstones of great customer service - The JobNetwork

The 4 cornerstones of great customer service - The JobNetwork Chances are, if you’re interviewing for a position in customer service- whether as a customer service rep or another service role- you’ll be asked to define good customer service or to describe what good customer service means to you. This is one of the most typical questions (right up there with â€Å"tell us about your strengths and weaknesses†) for this type of position, so you should definitely be prepared to answer it- and answer it well. Don’t panic. Here’s a primer for how to tackle your answer prep for this golden question. Make sure your answer contains elements from each of these major sections.Awareness/ExpertiseWhatever the product or company you’re representing, it’s best to have knowledge of it inside and out. Thorough intelligence about what it is you’re selling or supporting is an absolute must to deliver quality service to customers, whether you’re dealing with books, food, drinks, technology, ads, widget s, websites, or designer shoes. Mention the pride you take in knowing your product and inventory inside and out–that’s how you help consumers make the satisfying choices that will keep them coming back.DemeanorFirst and foremost, good customer service involves  a good attitude. Greeting and farewell-ing customers with a warm smile or a genuinely friendly gesture are crucial for first and final impressions. Be sure to mention friendliness, helpfulness, and willingness to go the extra mile. Highlight how you’re not the type to just go through the motions, and how you’re willing to accept responsibility and blame and fix things whenever you can.EfficiencyIt’s not enough to just be friendly and pleasant; you also have to get things done. Mention how much you value your customers’ and your company’s time. Your promptness, reliability, and efficiency- particularly under fire- are all good to describe. Talk about how you have a deal with s pecific situations from your past in a timely and graceful way.Problem-solvingCustomer service almost always involves a bit of conflict now and again. Sometimes you have to deal with problematic customers, and sometimes you need to solve particularly tricky problems for customers as they come up. Paint yourself as someone who will think outside of the box for a solution, and be prepared to describe how you have done this in the past.Your ideal answer to this common question will cover all these bases. To sound well-prepared and interesting, make sure to throw in a real-life anecdote or two with good examples of just how you were able to practice these four virtues in the past. Then, tie it all together by speaking about how and why they contribute to your overall impression of what makes good customer service (and what makes you so good at providing it). You’ll impress with how well you prepared, and be one step closer to nabbing the job.

Change and Conflict Management in Nursing

Change and Conflict Management in Nursing Jon Teegardin Change and Conflict Change and conflict occur in all aspects of our society. In nursing, it is important to identify and embrace change, address and resolve conflict, and do so in an effective and efficient manner. This paper will present descriptions of change theories, conflict theories, and how a nurse’s ability to handle both can enhance or hinder effective leadership. Additionally, the leader as a change agent will be discussed. Change Theories While there are numerous theories of change that exist, in the profession of nursing there are three main theories that are consistently seen throughout the healthcare industry. These theories are Lewins theory of change, Rogers change theory, and Spradley’s change theory. Lewins change theory Probably the most recognizable theory of change is that presented by Kurt Lewin. His theory involves three stages to change: unfreezing, moving, and refreezing (Stolley, 2005). Two forces are present in this theory, the driving force, or those pushing for a particular change, and the resistant force, those who are resistant to the change. For change to occur the driving force or agents for change, must be stronger than the resistant force. In the unfreezing stage, the driving force develops a method that allows people to let go of the current, unproductive way of doing something. By finding this method, individual resistance to the change is overcome. In the moving phase, individuals are encouraged to change their way of thinking, feeling, or behavior to the new method. Finally, in the refreezing stage, this change becomes the new habit and ultimately the standard operating procedure. Lewins theory is also referred to as the force field theory that states an organization attempts to maintain a state of equilibrium between change forces and restraining forces (Swanson, & Creed, 2014). Change agents are the forces for change and must overcome the restraining forces to make the change successful. Rogers change theory Everette Rogers’s theory is a modification of Lewin’s change theory and involves five stages. The stages are awareness, interest, evaluation, implementation and adoption (Boston University School of Health, 2013). Roger’s theory is typically applied to long term projects. In the awareness stage, individuals are exposed to the new idea or process but lack all of the information about it. In the interest stage, the individual is interested in the new idea and seeks out additional information. The next stage is the evaluation stage where the individual determines how to apply the idea or process to their situation and decides whether or not they want to try it. The implementation stage occurs when the individual decides to make full use of the idea or process. Finally, in the adoption stage, the individual decides to continue to use the new idea or process. Roger’s theory is an example of social cognitive theory. Change does not occur im mediately among all those presented with the change. There are actually five groups of people that implement the change over time. These groups are innovators who are leaders that embrace the change immediately, early adopters who are also leaders but will follow innovators, the early majority who are the bulk of the followers, the late majority who include skeptics of the change, and finally laggards who are resistant to change (Kaminski, 2011).

Socilogy of Organisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Socilogy of Organisation - Essay Example The term 'power' is obtained from the French term 'poeir' which implies 'being able to take action'. Power is characterised by the ability to carry out or proceed efficiently inclusive of the situational context where not to proceed is considered as most effectual. In a democratic framework, power is essentially categorised against itself, in the archetypal tripartite segmentation of power in governmental, executive and legal power, for example. In modern pluralistic democracies the distribution of power has further implication which is particularly not restricted to the dominion of formal politics. Issues of power concern to languages, communication, promotion, technologies, sciences, fashions, designs, management and varieties of other fields. Evidently, it can be concluded that 'power is everywhere' in terms of relational definition of power attributing to omnipresence, multiplication and dynamism, not restricted to the 'centres of power', as prevalent in legislative organizations and political institutions, for instance. Power is an important aspect of organizational analysis. ... r, in organizational analysis the primary emphasis is on 'power over' in which coercion put prominence on asymmetrical framework while commanding over on resources, like possession on the mode of fabrication, and consent, on the other hand, put stresses on authorities as 'gripping power' revealing a control over all the resources for and after production. There are several numbers of classifications explaining the inferences power over another - the phenomenon is defined as 'forms of power' as described by Russell (1938), subcategorised fundamentally in two headings - - Influence over individuals - Psychological types of influence (Russell, 1938). While understanding the function of an organizational structure, the fundamental methodologies employed to understand the implementation of power need to be recognized. The forms of influence, in practice, are broken down into three general subtypes - - The power of Force and coercion - The power of Inducement and group conformity - The power of Propaganda and/or practice On the other hand, the psychological influences can be subdivided into three distinctive forms such as - - Traditional - Revolutionary - Naked These subtypes can be overlapped with the forms of influences in certain given contexts, for instance, naked power can be trimmed down into coercion alone. Coercion is found to be affected by the influence of carceral power, which is essentially characterised by the experience of agents as 'imprisoned' by virtue of the use of power as a force, as described by Marx, or the attainability of the knowledge of its ability (Weber). Resistance may be overcome by the presence of compliance, which is known as subjectification as 'power through' rather than the presence of naked use of power at the form coercion, which is

Political Parties Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Political Parties - Essay Example (Bogdanor, 2006) Figures have however been more dismal in the past 30 years. In 2005, membership of the Conservative Party had fallen to an abysmal 250,000. Thus from 1975 to 2005, the Conservative Party has lost more than four out of five of its members. (Bogdanor, 2006) Interestingly, within that same period, the Conservative Party has been in power for a total of more than 15 years. Consequently, though it has been in power for more than half the total time between 1975 and 2005, the Conservative Party has lost more than four fifths of individual membership. The situation of the Labour Party is also very dismal. Though membership drive in 1996 had witnessed an increase of individual membership to 400,000, by 2006, membership of the Labour Party had dropped to 200,000, half its number in a space of 10 years and one fifth in the space of about 50 years. (Bogdanor, 2006) "Fifty years ago, 1 in 11 of the electorate belonged to a political party; today just 1 in 88 do. Moreover, voters feel less attached to parties than they did. In 1966, 42 per cent professed a "very strong" attachment to the party of their choice; today only 13 per cent do. That, no doubt, is one of the reasons for the increasing volatility of voters and low turnout in general elections - 59 per cent in 2001, 62 per cent in 2005." (para. 1) The high lev The high level of passivity to political party membership may also account for the volatility in voter turnout during elections. The loss of interest in political parties and its concomitant effect on electoral turnouts can be contrasted with public participation in other political issues. According to the Electoral Commission and the Hansard Society (2004), whereas the 2001 general elections witnessed a significant decline in voter turnouts, there was a greater willingness by the public to participate in demonstrations in 2003 on issues like the Iraq war, the funding of higher education, and the visit of President Bush. Many reasons can be given for the steady loss of interest in political parties over the years in the UK and other EU countries. The locus of political engagement has been diversified in the UK and EU over the years and this has had a great influence on the dwindling membership of political parties. The Electoral Commission and the Hansard Society (2004) have argued that: "Recent years have seen an increase in pressure group and 'protest' politics, indicating a more complex picture of political engagement than voting figures alone might suggest." (p. 5) The diversification of political engagement thus connotes a movement from the political party as the central organisation for effecting change in society. Traditionally, political parties, especially in the first half of the 20th century were seen as the means of achieving social change. Issues of social concern like social justice, the environment, democracy, and equality were advanced at the political party front. (Wainwright, 2008) The formation of the Labour Party in the UK in 1900 epitomises the role of agents of change that political parties enjoyed. The coming together of trade unions, workers and socialists, with the aim of changing the way the interests of the public were represented in Parliament became the bedrock for the founding of the Labour Part

Enewsletter analysis Essay Example for Free

Enewsletter analysis Essay The e-newsletter I chose is the daily newsletter from Saint Louis University that is sent to all students, faculty, staff and alumni via email. The university just started sending this newsletter to students this year, as previously it just went to the faculty and staff. Overall, the content of the newsletter is more pertinent to the faculty, staff and alumni. But with the inclusion of student readers the newsletter now makes some room for student news. The layout of this newsletter has â€Å"News Announcements† at the very top with â€Å"Today’s Events† and â€Å"Upcoming Ongoing Events† right next to it. Something very effective of this newsletter is the picture right below the â€Å"News Announcements† title, as it draws in the attention of the reader right away. Below the event listings is â€Å"SLU in the News†, where it lists blips of SLU and its professors in various media outlets. I thought this was also very effective as it give the readers (people of the SLU community) a reminder that people in their community are doing great things and that the readers ought to be proud of the SLU community. This newsletter doesn’t actually have the article right on there, but has links to the â€Å"full story† underneath each title. Each title also has a teaser to intrigue the reader into reading further and clicking the link, but one cannot read the articles right there on the newsletter. This may be a good strategy if the reader has a short attention span and is only glancing through the newsletter, but I think it lessens the quality of the newsletter overall as the newsletter doesn’t provide much information at face value. An interesting thing about this newsletter is that at the very bottom readers can click a link and â€Å"submit news†. This allows readers to be interactive with the newsletter and with what’s happening in their community. The color scheme just reflects the school colors of the university, and aren’t really anything interesting or creative. Article Revision The article I am revising for a blog/social media announcement is the one entitled: Volunteer for Campus Kitchen Through Mid June. I thought that this article would be the one most likely rehashed onto a blog or social media cite. Need something to do for the summer? Help is still needed throughout the month of June at Campus Kitchens. Shifts are available on Sundays between 1-3 p. m. and Wednesdays between 4-6 p. m. Volunteers can cook or pick up food, organize meals and deliver meals. Call (314) 977-3881 or e-mail Jenny at [emailprotected] org to sign up! Volunteer for one shift or for the whole month of June, it doesn’t matter. People are just needed till the summer volunteers arrive in July. A big thanks to the ITS department for volunteering for every Monday shift! Thank you for your time and hard work.

Endangered species Act :: essays research papers

We have to put a stop to this and weaken the power that the Edangered Species Act has on us. People are getting laid off there jobs and millions of our tax dollars are being spent on the Endangered Species Act (ESA)all the time. Is it worth all of this for these endandered species. Must humans suffer and lose there jobs and houses over a few insects? Laws for the ESA are taking peoples property and fineing them because endangered species live on their property.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A person is legally barred from using certain measures to protect his property from protected wild animals. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act and state hunting bans, involves protected birds that feed on private crops or forage. Another situation, arising under the ESA, involves protected predators (wolves, grizzly bears) that kill private livestock that people have to make a living on. These people can not do a thing because of the ESA. So what do they do Just let their live stock or crops get eaten up by these endangered species?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The ESA’s power is hurting us all the time. For enstance the construction of the San Bernardino Medical Center in California was delayed for years because of a large orange and black fly called the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly. In order for the Medical Center to be built the City of San Bernardino had to spend $3,310,199 so eight flies could live. The site of the Hospital had to be moved 250 feet from it origanal location. Then the City of San Bernardino had to spend another $480,000 for the study of the flies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I do not understand. These people rather help out flies then ourselfs. They wanted to make a medical center. A center to help people, humanbeingget better. But what do we care about more. Some Delhi Sands flower-loving fly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The ESA really target large property owners. In 1990 Brandt Child bought 500 acres of property in Utah. The next year in 1991, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service told him he he could not build on his own property because the lakes on it were inhabited by 200,000 federally protected thumbnail-sized Kanab ambersnails.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thats not all, After they found 10 domestic geeses near the lakes and ponds. They told Mr. Child that if any of the snails get eaten by the geese it was a $50,000 fine for every sail. Mr. Child to this day is still out $2.5 million. Due to the fact that he can't use his property, and the government refuses to compensate him for his loss.

What is Behaviorism?

In the United States, there are two conflicting psychology schools of thought. The first is the introspective psychology which has also been considered as speculative psychology and the other being behaviorism psychology, which is also considered as objective psychology. Although introspective psychology has long been accepted in the field of psychology, behaviorism has not only begun to gain more ground among psychologists but it has also begun to contest and question the premise of introspective psychology and their method of analysis and research.It was only during the 19th century that development of the field of psychology began to become evident through the efforts of Wundt who is considered to be the father of experimental psychology. Wanting to find a solution on the mind-body problem, Wundt decided in 1879 to develop psychology as a science rather than a field of study associated with philosophy. He substituted the term â€Å"soul† with the concept of the â€Å"consc iousness† and eventually developed the introspective approach in the study of psychology.According to this approach to the study of psychology, the consciousness of the individual is the primary subject matter of psychology which led to psychologists such as William James to define psychology as the study aimed to describe and explain the various states of an individual’s consciousness. In order to do this, psychologists observe the consciousness through catching it as it occurs. This school of thought had become highly accepted that it had reached the United States from Germany and became the dominant form of psychological analysis in American universities.Among the most noted introspective psychologists in the United States were E. B. Thchener of Cornell University and William James of Harvard University. In 1912, a new group of psychologist emerged. These were the behaviorists or behavioral psychologists. They began to see the shortcomings of introspective psychology . As a result, behavioral psychologists decided that the information being discovered and disseminated are no longer sufficient and they began to create their own methods for the study of psychology.The first thing done by behavioral psychologists was to change the subject matter of the field of psychology. Because the consciousness is deemed to be unobservable, they began to search for some characteristic or trait of individuals that could be observed. It was then that they began to observe the behavior of individuals which has been defined as what an individual says or does. Hence, this approach of the study of psychology as the behaviorism school of psychology. Behaviorism has also been considered as the objective approach to the study of psychology.This is because behavioral psychologists gather facts about an individual’s behavior and analyze the data through the use of logic and mathematics. This is why behaviorism has been defined as a natural science that is intereste d in the adjustments done by individuals through the study of changes in the physiological conditions of the individual which they termed as the stimuli and the response the individual would have as a result of the stimulus presented. Based on the studies done by behavioral psychologists, there are four kinds of responses exhibited by individuals.The first kind of response is classified as overt or external responses. These responses are those responses that the individual in consciously aware of such as the act of sitting, standing or walking. The second kind of response is termed as internal or implicit responses. These responses are more difficult to observe since they involve responses that occur within the body of the individual such as digestion in the stomach of the individual after the individual takes in food. The third type of response is the unlearned response which refers to instinctive responses to stimuli such as breathing.The last form is classified as learned respons e which includes the habits done by the individual such as observed when an individual sits, facial reactions and hand gestures while communicating. Analysis Up to the 1900s, the study of the human psyche was hindered by the teachings of religion. Even today, people remain to be apprehensive if the new information that is presented is contrary to the generally accepted belief. Back then, it was the teachings of the Church that provided answers and explanations to life and the universe.This is why despite the desire of Wundt to establish psychology as a branch of science, the influence dualism had on him while he was growing up provided him a subject matter that cannot be observed. As a result, all the observations done and the theories conceptualized based on these observations were viewed as speculative and were frequently contested by fellow psychologists. Behaviorism psychology developed as a result of a group of psychologists who realized that the only their theories would not b e susceptible to much speculation from their peers is by substantiating these theories with verifiable data and results.This could only be done if their subject matter could be observed. Seeing that they would be able to observe the behavior of individuals, these psychologists broke away from the accepted notion that the consciousness of the individual is the basis of the study of psychology and instead viewed that it is the behavior, and not the consciousness, of the individual that is the prime subject of study of psychology.Today, it is clear to see that behaviorism has superseded introspective psychology as the practiced school of psychology with the association of the field of psychology as the field of science that is associated with the study of an individual’s behavioral patterns and the causes for such behavioral patterns to arise. This does not mean to say that introspective psychologists failed to contribute to the current accepted school of psychology. On the cont rary, introspective psychologists paved the way for psychology to develop as it is known today.Through the introduction of the introspective school of psychology, men in the field of neurology and the other sciences were presented a field of study that would allow them to understand the human psyche and the human mind more comprehensively. Being men of science, they would eventually find loopholes to a theory or finding made by one of their peers. This would result to them further studying the human mind. It was through this process that behavioral psychologists were able to determine the shortcoming of this field of science.As a result, behaviorism through the scientific method used to validate assumptions may be able to determine just how close the speculations stipulated by the introspective psychologists were in their assumptions about the human mind and psyche. Finally, the development of behaviorism shows that psychology is continuously evolving. This is because the subject ma tter being studied is the human mind, which is considered as the most complex body part of one of the most complex, if not the most complex, organisms on this planet.

Bangus Production

FISHPOND ENGINEERING 1. INTRODUCTION Fishpond Engineering is the science of planning, designing and constructing ponds including water control structures. Although not entirely new in the Fish Farm industry, it has gained international acceptance and plays an important role for the efficiency of the farm management as well as in attaining higher farm production. Fishpond Engineering takes into consideration most especially the physical structures and economy of construction based on the proper engineering procedure and application. . SITE SELECTION AND EVALUATION OF EXISTING AREAS 2. 1 Water Supply Water supply is the first and most important factor to consider in the suitability of a fishpond site. Usually, water supply comes from a river, a creek or from the sea. It must meet the quality and quantity requirement of the pond system throughout the year. Water quality is affected by the physical, the chemical, and the biological parameters. Such parameters are affected by the 1) by-products and wastes resulting from urbanization, 2) agricultural pollutants such as pesticides and fertilizers, 3) industrial wastes from pulp mills, sugar, oil refineries, and textile plants, 4) radio-active wastes, 5) oil pollution arising navigational activities, uncontrolled spillage, and oil exploration. Some of these parameters are discussed in detail under fishpond management. Poor quality water sometimes causes the fouling of gates, screens or metal pipes. This happens when heavy dredging is being conducted in an area. Heavy dredging increases turbidity and causes the release of organic substances embedded in the soil. Once these organic substances are released, they use up oxygen causing high biological oxygen demand (BOD). Higher BOD causes oxygen depletion which in turn makes the water foul. Similar conditions also occur during floods. Water supply in tide-fed farms must be adequate especially during some months of the year when the height of high water is at minimum. This problem can be solved by proper gate design and by the use of pumps. The rate of volume flow of nearby tidal stream needs also to be considered; measurement is made during the dry stream flow and during floods. The data obtained give the developer the minimum and maximum rates of discharge. These are important requirements in fish farm design. For details, refer to Annex I. 2. 2 Tidal Characteristic and Ground Elevation The suitability of a tide-fed area for a â€Å"bangus† fishpond project depends on the relationship between the tidal characteristic of the area and its ground elevation. The only free source of energy that could be tapped for flooding a brackishwater coastal pond is tidal energy which is available once or twice a day depending on geographical location. Five reference stations in the Philippines exhibit five peculiarly different patterns during some months of the year. Figure 1 shows in a graphical form the relationship of natural ground elevation to tidal characteristic. Tables 1 and 2 show such relationships as they are applicable to the six stations of reference. [pic] Figure 1 – Suitability of Proposed Fishpond Site Based on Tidal Characteristic and Ground Elevation. |LOCALITY |Elevations in Meters Above Mean Lower Low H20 | | |Mean High Water (MHW) |Mean Sea Level (MSL) |Mean Low Water (MLW) | |Pier 13, South Harbor, Manila |0. 872 |0. 479 |0. 104 | |Pier 2, Cebu City |1. 50 |0. 722 |0. 183 | |Legaspi Port, Legaspi City |1. 329 |0. 744 |0. 165 | |Sta. Ana Port Davao City |1. 405 |0. 753 |0. 101 | |Port of Poro, San Fernando, La Union |- |0. 372 |- | |Jolo Wharf Jolo, Sulu |0. 631 |0. 38 |0. 034 | Table 1. List of Primary Tide Stations and Datum Planes |   |Highest |Lowest |Absolute |Normal daily fluctuation |R E M A R K S | | |recorded tide |recorded tide|annual range |low/high(range) (m) | | | |(m) |(m) |(m) | | | |PHILIPPINES |1. 4 |(-)0. 21 |1. 25 |(-)0. 03/0. 61(0. 64) |Tidal fluctuation too | |San Fernando, La | | | | |narrow for proper | |Union | | | | |fishpond management | |Manila City |1. 46 |(-)0. 34 |1. 8 |0. 14/1. 05(0. 1) |T idal fluctuation | | | | | | |slightly narrow for | | | | | | |proper fishpond | | | | | | |management | |Legaspi City |1. 83 |(-)0. 4 |2. 23 |1. 09/1. 40(1. 9) |Tidal fluctuation | | | | | | |favorable for proper | | | | | | |fishpond management | |Cebu City |1. 98 |(-)0. 4 |2. 38 |(-)0. 03/1. 49(1. 52) |-do- | |Davao City |1. 98 |(-)0. 49 |2. 47 |(-)0. 03/1. 77(1. 80) |-do- | |Jolo, Sulu |1. 19 |(-)0. 12 |1. 31 |(-)0. 03/0. 98(1. 1) |Tidal fluctuation | | | | | | |slightly narrow for | | | | | | |proper fishpond | | | | | | |management | Table 2. Suitability of Six Tidal Stations of Reference for Fish Farms Areas reached only by the high spring tides should be ruled out as it is costly to move large quantities of soil during the process of excavation. There is that other problem of where to place the excess materials. While these can be solved by constructing high and wide perimeter dikes, putting up more dikes will create narrow compartments resulting in less area intended for fish production. Low areas on the other hand will require higher and more formidable dikes which may mean that earth will have to be moved long distances. The pond bottom should not be so low that drainage will be a problem. The best elevation for a pond bottom therefore, would at least be 0. 2 meter from the datum plane or at an elevation where you can maintain at least 0. meter depth of water inside a pond during ordinary tides. This index should satisfy the requirements of both fish and natural fish food. 2. 2. 1 Tides The attractive forces of both the moon and the sun on the earth surface which changes according to the position of the two planets bring about the occurrence of tides. Tides recur with great regularity and uniformity, although tidal charac teristic vary in different areas all over the world. The principal variations are in the frequency of fluctuation and in the time and height of high and low waters. When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, greater tidal amplitudes are produced. These are called spring tides. Tides of smaller amplitudes are produced when the sun and the moon form the extremes of a right triangle with the earth at the apex. These are called neap tides. When high and low waters occur twice a day it is called a semi-diurnal tide. When the high and the low occur once a day it is called a diurnal tide. The moon passes through a given meridian at a mean interval of 24 hours and 50 minutes. We call this interval one lunar day. Observations reveal that the mean interval between two successive high (or low) waters is 12 hours and 25 minutes. Thus, if there is a high water at 11:00 A. M. today, the next high water will take place 12 hours and 25 minutes later, i. e. , 11:25 P. M. and the next will be at 11:50 A. M. of the following day. Each day the time of tide changes an average of 50 minutes. The difference in the sea water level between successive high and low waters is called the range. Generally, the range becomes maximum during the new and full moon and minimum during the first and last quarter of the moon. The difference in the height between the mean higher high and the mean lower low waters is called the diurnal range. The difference in the tide intervals observed in the morning and afternoon is called diurnal inequality. At Jolo, for instance, the inequality is mainly in the high waters while at Cebu and Manila it is in the low waters as well as in the high waters. The average height of all the lower of low waters is the mean lower low (MLLW), or (0. 00) elevations. This is the datum plane of reference for land elevation of fish farms. Prediction of tides for several places throughout the Philippines can be obtained from Tide and Current Tables published annually by the Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey (BCGS). These tables give the time and height of high and low water. The actual tidal fluctuation on the farm however, deviates to some extent from that obtained from the table. The deviation is corrected by observing the time and height of tidal fluctuation at the river adjacent to the farm, and from this, the ratio of the tidal range can be computed. From the corrected data obtained, bench marks scattered in strategic places can be established. These bench marks will serve later on as starting point in determining elevations of a particular area. 2. 2. 2 Tide prediction There are six tide stations in the Philippines, namely: San Fernando, Manila, Legaspi, Cebu, Jolo and Davao stations. Reference stations for other places are listed under the â€Å"Tidal Differences† and â€Å"Constants† of the Tide and Current Tables. The predicted time and height of high and low waters each day for the six tide stations can be read directly from the table. Tide predictions for other places are obtained by applying tidal differences and ratios to the daily predictions. Tidal differences and ratios are also found in the Tide and Current Tables. Let us take for example, the tidal predictions for Iloilo on 23 Sept. 1979. Looking through the tidal differences and constants of the Tide Tables, you will find that reference station for Iloilo is Cebu. The predicted time and height of tides for Cebu obtained from the tide tables on 23 Sept. 1979 are as follows: |High |Low            | |Time |: |Height |Time |: |Height | |0004 |: |1. 3 m |0606 |: |0. 14 m | |1216 |   |1. 52 m |1822 |   |0. 18 m | (The heights are in meters and reckoned from mean lower low water (MLLW); 0000 is midnight and 1200 is noon). Again, from the table on Tidal Differences and Constants, the corrections on the time and height of high and low waters for Iloilo are as follows: |Time |Height of High Water |Height of Low Water | |+ 0 hr. 05 min. |+ 0. 09 |+ 0. 3 | Thus, the corrected time and heights of high and low waters for Iloilo are: |High |Low            | |Tim e |: |Height |Time |: |Height | |0009 |: |1. 52 m |0611 |: |0. 17 m | |1221 |: |1. 61 m |1827 |: |0. 21 m | 2. 2. 3 Height of tide at any given time The height of the tide at any given time of the day may be determined graphically by plotting the tide curve. This can be done if one needs to know the height of the tide at a certain time. The procedure is as follows: On a cross-section paper, plot the high (H) and the low (L) water points between which the given time lines (see Fig. 2). Join H and L by a straight line and divide it into four equal parts. Name the points as Q1, M and Q2 with M as the center point. Locate point P1 vertically above Q1 and P2 vertically below Q2 at a distance equal to one tenth of the range of the tide. Draw a sine curve through points H, P1, M, P2 and L. This curve closely approximates the actual tide curve, and heights for any time may be readily scaled from it. Figure 2 shows the curve on 23 Sept. 1979 for Iloilo. H is 1. 61 m at 12:21 hr and L is 0. 21 m at 18:27 hr. Since the range is 1. 40 m, P1 is located 0. 14 units above Q1 and P2 is located 0. 14 units below Q2. The height of the tide at 14:30 hr is given by point T to be 1. 22 m. [pic] Figure 2. Height of Tide at any Given Time for Iloilo on 23 Sept. 1979. 2. 3 Soil Properties Most of our fishponds are constructed on tidal lands consisting of alluvial soils which are adjacent to rivers or creeks near the coastal shores and estuaries at or near sea level elevation. If you pick up a handful of soil and examine it closely, you will find that it is made up of mineral and organic particles of varying sizes. The mineral particles are the clay, silt, and sand while the organic particles are plant and animal matter at various stages of decomposition. Soils are assigned with textural classes depending on their relative proportion of sand, silt and clay. Each textural class exhibits varying colors which are based on their chemical composition, amount of organic matter and the degree of decomposition. U. S. Department of Agriculture Classification System has classified soil as: |GENERAL TERMS | |Common Names |Texture |Basic Soil Textural Class Names | |1. |Sandy Soils |Coarse |Sandy | | | | |Sandy Loam | |2. Loamy Soils |Moderately Coarse |Sandy Loam | | | | |Fine sandy Loam | | | |Medium |Very fine Sandy Loam | | | |Moderately fine |Loam | | | | |Silty Loam | | | | |Silt | |3. |Clayey Soils |Fine |Sandy Clay |Clay Loam | | | | |Silty Clay |Sandy Clay Loam | | | | |Clay |Silty Clay Loam | Many properties of soil, which are related to its texture, determine how well suited it is for fishpond purposes. A sandy loam, for instance, is more porous than silty loam and the latter will hold more nutrients than the former. Clay or sandy clay may be the best for dike construction but not as good as clay loam or silty clay loam in terms of growing natural food. So, in general, finer textured soils are superior for fishpond purposes because of their good water retention properties. Each soil texture exhibits different workability as soil construction material. Studies conducted show that clayey soil is preferred for diking purposes. Suitability of a soil class as dike material decreases with decreasing percentage of clay present in the mixture (see Table 3). CLASS |RELATIVE CHARACTERISTIC |COMPACTION CHARACTERISTIC |SUITABILITY FOR DIKE | | | | |MATERIAL | | |PERMEABILITY |COMPRESSIBILITY | | | |Clay |impervious |medium |fair to good |excellent | |Sandy clay |impervious |low |good |good | |Loamy |semi-pervious |high |fair to very |fair | | |to | | | | | |impervious |high |poor | | |Silty |se mi-pervious to |medium to |good to very |poor | | |impervious |high |poor | | |Sandy |pervious |negligible |good |poor | |Peaty |- |- |- |very poor | Table 3. Relationship of Soil Classes and Suitability for dike material Sediments are a dominant and observable characteristic in lower areas of brackishwater swamplands. Field observations and laboratory analysis of soil samples taken reveal that the majority have a thick layer of loose organic sediments which make them unsuitable for fishpond development and other infrastructures. Engineering and other technical considerations indicate that areas having this type of soil are rather difficult to develop because it is directly related to future land development problems such as (1) subsidence and related flood hazards, (2) unavailability of stable and indigenous soil materials for diking, and (3) unavailability of land with adequate load bearing capacity for future infrastructures such as buildings for storage and production facilities. Areas dominated by organic and undecomposed sediments are expected to experience considerable subsidence which eventually result to loss in effective elevation of the land after development as a result of drainage or controlled water table. Since elevation of most tidal lands converted to brackishwater fishponds are generally one meter above MLLW, any future loss of elevation due to subsidence shall predispose the area to severe drainage and flooding problems due to blocking effect of seawater during high tides. Organic and undecomposed sediments are not a good foundation for dikes nor for diking material. Fishpond areas dominated by this type of soil will mean that there is an inadequacy of indigenous soil materials for diking or filling of lower areas. In the absence of good soil materials, the site under consideration will require importing of soils from the adjoining areas which will make the system of development a very expensive process, or considerable excavation for diking will cause (1) unnecessary exposure of acid organic layers, (2) difficulty in leveling, (3) high cost of dike maintenance and (4) technical problems on seepage losses which will cause difficulty in maintaining water levels in the pond. 2. 3. 1 Field method for identification of soil texture Sand – Soil has granular appearance. It is free-flowing when in a dry state. A handful of air-dry soil when pressed will fall apart when released. It will form a ball which will crumble when lightly touched. It cannot be ribboned between thumb and finger when moist. Sandy Loam – Essentially a granular soil with sufficient silt and clay to make it somewhat coherent. Sand characteristic predominate. It forms a ball which readily falls apart when lightly touch ed when air-dry. It forms a ball which bears careful handling without breaking. It cannot be ribboned. Loam – A uniform mixture of sand, silt, and clay. Grading of sand fraction is quite uniform from coarse to fine. It is soft and has somewhat gritty feel, yet is fairly smooth and slightly plastic. When squeezed in hand and pressure is released, it will form a ball which can be handled freely without breaking. It cannot be ribboned between thumb and finger when moist. Silty Loam – It contains a moderate amount of finer grades of sand and only a small amount of clay; over half of the particles are silt. When dry, it may appear quite cloddy; it can be readily broken and pulverized to a powder. When air-dry, it forms a ball which can be freely handled. When wet, soil runs together and puddles. It will not ribbon but has a broken appearance; it feels smooth and may be slightly plastic. Silt – It contains over 80% of silt particles with very little fine sand and clay. When dry, it may be cloddy; it is readily pulverized to powder with a soft flour-like feel. When air-dry, it forms a ball which can be handled without breaking. When moist, it forms a cast which can freely be handled. When wet, it readily puddles. It has a tendency to ribbon with a broken appearance; it feels smooth. Clay Loam – Fine texture soils break into lumps when dry. It contains more clay than silt loam. It resembles clay in a dry condition. Identification is made on physical behaviour of moist soil. When air-dry, it forms a ball which can be freely handled without breaking. It can be worked into a dense mass. It forms a thin ribbon which readily breaks. Clay – Fine texture soils break into very hard lumps when dry. It is difficult to pulverize into a soft flour-like powder when dry. Identification is based on cohesive properties of the moist soil. When air-dry, it forms long thin flexible ribbons. It can be worked into a dense compact mass. It has considerable plasticity, and can be moulded. Organic Soil – Identification is based on its high organic content. Much consists of thoroughly decomposed organic materials with considerable amount of mineral soil finely divided with some fibrous remains. When considerable fibrous material is present, it may be classified as peat. Soil color ranges from brown to black. It has high shrinkage upon drying. 2. 4 Studies of Watershed and Flood Hazard 2. 4. 1 Watershed A watershed is a ridge of high land draining into a river, river system or body of water. It is the region facing or sloping towards the lower lands and is the source of run-off water. The bigger the area of the watershed, the greater the volume of run-off water that will drain to the rivers, creeks, swamps, lakes or ocean. Precipitation from a watershed does not totally drain down as run-off water. A portion of the total rainfall moving down the watershed's surface is used by the vegetation and becomes a part of the deep ground water supply or seeps slowly to a stream and to the sea. The factor affecting the run-off may be divided into factors associated with the watershed. Precipitation factors include rainfall duration, intensity and distribution of rainfall in the area. Watershed factors affecting run-off include size and shape of watershed, retention of the watershed, topography and geology of the watershed. The volume of run-off from a watershed may be expressed as the average depth of water that would cover the entire watershed. The depth is usually expressed in centimeters. One day or 24-hours rainfall depth is used for estimating peak discharge rate, thus: Volume of Flood Run-off (Q) [pic]+ S1 Engineering Field Manual For Conservation Practices, 1969, pp 2–5 to 2–6 |where |Q |= |accumulated volume of run-off in centimeters depth over the drainage area | | |P |= |accumulated rainfall in cm depth over the drainage area | | |Ia |= |initial obstruction including surface storage, interception by vegetation and | | | | |infiltration prior to run-off in cm depth over the drainage area | | |s |= |potential maximum retention of water by the soil equivalent in cm depth over the | | | | |drainage area | 2. 4. 2 Flood hazard Floods are common in the Philippines due to overflowing of rivers triggered by typhoons and the southwest monsoon rain prevailing over the islands during the rainy season. Overflow of the rivers is largely attributable to the bad channel characteristic such as steep slopes as well as meandering at the lower reach of the river. The network of the tidal streams in some delta areas has been rendered ineffective in conveying the flood-water to the sea due to fishpond construction. Flooding is common in this country and is considered the most destructive enemy of the fishpond industry. The floods of 1972 and 1974 greatly affected the fishpond industry in Central Luzon causing damage amounting to millions of pesos. Because of the floods, fishponds became idle during the time necessary for operators to make repairs and improvements. Floods cannot be controlled, but what is important is to know how a fishpond can be free to some extent from flood hazard. In order to prevent frequent flooding, it is necessary to know the weather conditions in the area where the fishpond project is located. The highest flood occuring in an area can be determined by proper gathering of information. In big rivers, the Ministry of Public Works (MPW) records the height of flood waters during rainy seasons. However, in areas where the MPW has no record, the best way is by gathering information from the people who have stayed in the area for many years. The size of the creek, river and drainage canal should also be determined to find out whether it can accommodate the run-off water or flood water that drains in the area once the fishpond project is developed. Records of the highest flood in the site, especially during high tide, is very important. It will be the basis in providing allowance for the drainage of flood water coming from the watershed. 2. 5 Climatic Conditions Climate has been described in terms of distribution of rainfall recorded in a locality during the different months of the year. In the Philippines, it is classified into four climatic zones preferably called weather types, namely: |Type I |- |Two pronounced seasons; dry from November to April and wet uring the rest of the year. | |Type II |- |No dry season with very pronounced maximum rainfall from November to January. | |Type III |- |Season not very pronounced; relatively dry from November to April and wet during the | | | |rest of the year. | |Type IV |- |Rainfa ll more or less evenly distributed throughout the year. | The elements that make up the climate of a region are the same as those that make up the weather, the distinction being one mainly of time. But the elements that concern most fishpond operators are the rainfall, temperature and the prevailing wind direction because they greatly affect fish production directly or indirectly. Data on rainfall and wind direction are very necessary in planning the layout and design of pond system. Knowing past rainfall records, you can more or less decide whether it will be necessary to include a drainage canal in the layout, and how large it will be when constructed. Knowing past rainfall records will also be necessary in computing the height of the secondary and tertiary dikes. Wind on the other hand, plays a role in fishpond design. Strong wind generates wave actions that destroy sides of the dike. This causes great expense in the construction and maintenance. However, this problem can be minimized with proper planning and design. For instance, longer pond dimension should be positioned somewhat parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind (see Fig. 3). This will lessen the side length of the dike exposed to wave action. This orientation of pond compartments will also have some advantageous effects in the management aspect. [pic] Figure 3. Layout of Pond Compartments Oriented to the Prevailing Wind Direction Nearly every location is subject to what is called the prevailing wind, or the wind blowing in one direction for a major portion of the year. Monsoons are prevailing winds which are seasonal, blowing from one direction over part of the year and from the opposite direction over the remaining part of the year. Trade winds, which generally come from the east, prevail during the rest of the year when the monsoons are weak. [pic] Figure 4. Wind Directions Wave action in ponds is caused by wind blowing across the surface. One cannot totally control wave action in ponds although it can be minimized. In typhoon belt areas or in areas where a strong wind blows predominantly, it is better to include wind breakers in planning the layout of ponds. 2. 6 Type and Density of Vegetation Mangrove swamps occur in abundance on tidal zones along the coasts of the Philippines which are being converted into fishponds for fish production, but not all mangrove swamps are suitable for fishpond purposes. Some are elevated and are not economically feasible for development; others have too low an elevation to develop. The distribution of mangrove species in tropical estuaries depend primarily on the land elevation, soil types, water salinity and current. It has been observed that â€Å"api-api† and â€Å"pagat-pat† trees (Avicennia) abound in elevated areas while â€Å"bakawan† trees (Rhizophora) are mostly found in low areas. It has also been observed that nipa and high tannin trees have a long-lasting low pH effect on newly constructed ponds. Presence of certain shrubs and ferns indicate the elevation and frequency of tide water overrunning the area. Certain aquatic plants such as water lily, eel grass and chara sp. indicate low water salinities. The type and density of vegetation, the size, wood density and root system of individual trees greatly affect the method of clearing, procedure of farm development and construction cost. Thickly vegetated areas, for instance, will take a long time to clear of stumps. Density of vegetation is classified according to kind, size and quantity per unit area. This is done to determine the cost of land clearing and uprooting of stumps. One method used is by random sampling. The process requires at least five or more samples taken at random, regardless of size, and vegetation is classified according to kind, size and number. Then the findings are tabulated and the average of the samples is determined. However, vegetation of less than 3 cm in diameter is not included. The total vegetation of the area is determined as follows: [pic] |Station |NIPA |BAKAWAN |API-API |LIPATA |BIRIBID | |(20? 20) | | | | | | | |No|Av|No. | | |. |e. | | | | |Si| | | | |ze| | | |b |= |line GD | | |h |= |height or distance | The total area of the irregular figure is equal to the sum of A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5. Example: Find the area of an irregular figure shown in Figure 13 using the triangulation method. Solution: [pic] [pic] b. Trapezoidal Rule [pic] Figure 14. Area Determination Using the Trapezoidal Rule If a field is bounded on one side by a straight line and on the other by a curved boundary, the area may be computed by the use of the trapezoidal rule. Along a straight line AB, Fig. 14, perpendicular offsets are drawn and measured at regular intervals. The area is then computed using the following formula: [pic] Where: |ho, hn |= |length of end offsets | |Sh |= |sum of offsets (except end offsets) | |d |= |distance between offsets | Example: In Fig. 4, if the offsets from a straight line AB to the curved boundary DC are 35, 25, 30, 40, and 10, and are at equal distance of 30, what is the included area between the curved boundary and the straight line? Solution: |Area ABCD |= |[pic] | | |= | | | |= |117. 5 ? 30 | | |= |3,525 sq. m. | 3. 2. 3 Laying out right angles and parallel lin es a. Laying out right angles. For instance it is required to lay out the center line of dike B (see Fig. 15) perpendicular to that of dike A using a tape. A simple corollary on the right triangle states that a triangle whose sides are in proportion of 3, 4, and 5 is a right triangle, the longest side being the hypotenuse. In the figure, point C is the intersection of the two dike centerlines. One man holds the zero end of the tape at C and 30 m is measured towards B. Again from C, measure 40 m distance towards A and then from A' measure a distance of 50 meters towards B'. Line CB' should intersect line A' B'. Therefore, line CB is formed perpendicular to line CA. It is always desirable to check the distances to be sure that no mistake has been made. [pic] Figure 15. Laying Out Right Angles b. Laying out parallel lines. In Figure 16, CD is to be run parallel to AB. From line AB erect perpendicular lines EF and GH in the same manner described in the previous discussion. Measure equal distances of EF and GH from line AB and the line formed through points C' and D' is the required parallel. [pic] Figure 16. Laying Out Parallel Lines 3. 3 Topographic Survey 3. 3. 1 Explanation of common terms a. Bench Mark (BM). A bench mark is a point of known elevation of a permanent nature. A bench mark may be established on wooden stakes set near a construction project or by nails driven on trees or stumps of trees. Nails set on trees should be near the ground line where they will remain on the stump if the tree will be cut and removed. Procedure on setting up a bench mark is attached as Annex 4. It is a good idea to mark the nail with paint and ring the tree above and below also in case a chain saw is used to cut down the tree. The Philippines Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey has established bench marks in nearly all cities and at scattered points. They are generally bronze caps securely set on stones or in concrete with elevations referenced to mean sea level (MSL). The purpose of these bench marks is to provide control points for topographic mapping. b. Turning Point (TP). A turning point is a point where the elevation is determined for the purpose of traverse, but which is no longer needed after necessary readings have been taken. A turning point should be located on a firm object whose elevation will not change during the process of moving the instrument set up. A small stone, fence post, temporary stake driven into the ground is good enough for this purpose. c. Backsight (BS). Backsight is a rod reading taken on a point of known elevation. It is the first reading taken on a bench mark or turning point immediately after the initial or new set-up. d. Foresight (FS). Foresight is a rod reading taken on any point on which an elevation is to be determined. Only one backsight is taken during each set-up; all other rod readings are foresights. e. Height of Instrument (HI). Height of instrument is the elevation of the line of sight above the reference datum plane (MLLW). It is determined by adding the backsight rod reading to the known elevation of the point on which the backsight was taken. 3. 3. 2 Transit-stadia method of topographic survey The following describes the procedure of determining ground elevations using the engineer's level with a horizontal circle and stadia rod. A transit may be substituted for the level if care is exercised in leveling the telescope. It is assumed that a bench mark with known elevation has been established. a. Establish your position from a point of known location on the map. In Figure 17, point B is â€Å"tied† to a point of known location on the map, such as corner monument C of the area. This is done by sighting the instrument at C and noting down the azimuth and distance of line BC. The distance of B from C is determined by the stadia-method discussed under area survey. [pic] Figure 17. Establishing Position from a Point of Known Location on the Map b. Take a rod reading on the nearest bench mark (BM), as shown in Figure 18, previously installed for such purpose. This reading is called the backsight (BS), the rod being on a point of known elevation. The height of the instrument (HI) is then found by adding the elevation of the bench mark (Elev. ) and backsight (BS), thus: H. I. = Elev. + B. S. [pic] Figure 18. Transit-stadia Method of Topographic Survey c. The telescope is sighted to point D, or any other points desired, and take the rod reading. The reading is called the foresight (F. S. ), the rod being on a point of known elevation. Ground elevation of point D is then determined by subtracting the foresight (F. S. ), from the height of the instrument (H. I. ), thus: Elevation = H. I. – F. S. d. Similar procedure is used in determining the ground elevation of several points which are within sight from the instrument at point B. The azimuth and distance of all the points sighted from point B are read and recorded in the sample field notes such as shown in Figure 19. |Sta. |Sta. |B. S. | |Occ. |Obs. | |HAT |= |Highest Astronomical Tide | |GS |= |Elevation of the ground Surface | |MF |= |Maximum Flood level | |FB |= |Allowance for Free Board | |%S |= |Percent Shrinkage and settlement | 1. The design height of a secondary dike is calculated using the following formula: [pic] Where: Hs |= |Height of the secondary dike | |HST |= |Highest Spring Tide | |GS |= |Elevation of the ground Surface | |MR |= |Maximum Rainfall within 24 hours | |FB |= |Allowance for Freeboard | |%S |= |Percent Shrinkage and settlement | 2. The design height of a tertiary dike is calculated using the following formula: [pic] Where: Ht |= |Height of the tertiary dike | |DWL |= |Desired Water Level | |GS |= |Elevation of the ground Surface | |MR |= |Maximum Rainfall within 24 hours | |FB |= |Allowance for Freeboard | |%S |= |Percent Shrinkage and settlement | [pic] Figure 28. Design of Different Dikes 4. 3. 3 Canals. About one to two percent of the total farm area is used in the canal system. The main water supply canal starts from the main gate and usually traverses the central portion of the fishfarm. The canal bed should not be lower than, but rather sloping towards, the floor elevation of the main gate. Generally, the canal bed is given a slope of 1/1500 or one meter difference in elevation for a horizontal distance of 1,500 m. A one meter opening main gate will have a canal bed at least 3. m. wide. This width is enough to supply a 10–15 hectares fishpond system considering that the canal dikes have a ratio of 1:1 slope. Secondary water supply canals are constructed in portions of the farm which cannot be reached by the main canal. It starts from the main canal and traverses the inner portion of the fishpond. It is usually constructed in large fishpond areas and smaller than the main canal. Generally, secondary supply canal has a bed width of 2. 0 m. A tertiary canal is usually constructed to supply water in the nursery and transition ponds. Because of the small size, it is sometimes said to be a part of the nursery pond system. Some fish culturists modify the tertiary canal as a catching pond. This usually happens when the designed tertiary canal is short, Generally, a tertiary canal has a bed width of 1. 0–1. 5 m. A diversion canal, when necessary, is also constructed to protect the farm from being flooded with run-off water coming from the watershed. It must be strategically located so that run-off will empty on an established disposal area, natural outlets or prepared individual outlets. It should have the capacity to carry at least the peak run-off from the contributing watershed for a 10-year frequency storm. The slope of the diversion canal should be in such a way that water flows towards the drainage area. A drainage canal is constructed when there is a need to have a separate canal for draining rearing ponds. This is to improve water management in the pond system. It is usually located at the other side of the pond, parallel to the supply canal. A drainage canal is recommended in intensive culture, especially of shrimps. [pic] Figure 29. Design of Different Canals 5. PROJECT COST AND PROGRAMMING The worst error a prospective fishfarm operator can make is to develop an area without project cost estimates and a programme of development. Development money is wasted, and management of the area may be difficult or impossible. Poor planning is the major cause of project failure and even leads to personal bankruptcy. It is very necessary that preparation of the project cost estimates as well as programme of development be done before any construction is started. It is important to know approximately how much will be spent to finish the whole project. It is better that one knows how and when the project will be constructed and completed. The importance of the project cost estimates and programme of development should not be underestimated. 5. 1 Project Cost EStimates The cost of development can be estimated based on the 1) data gathered in the area, 2) proposed layout plan, and 3) design and specification of the physical structures and other facilities. 5. 1. 1 Pre-development estimates a. For the preparation of Feasibility Study. Whether the fishpond operator will apply for a loan in the Bank or he will use his own money to finance the development of a fishpond project, a feasibility study of the area is needed. The feasibility study will be his guide in the development and management of the project. All activities such as the development, management and economic aspects are embodied in the feasibility study. It is a specialized work by engineers, aquaculturist and an economist having special knowledge in fishfarming industry. Usually, for the preparation of the feasibility study, the group charges about 2% to 10% of the total estimated cost of development. b. For the Survey of the Area. An area survey includes a topographic survey, and re-location survey. Whether the area is owned by a private individual or by the government, an area survey by a licensed Geodetic Engineer is very important for the proper location and boundary of the land. It is one of the requirements in the application for a 25-year Fishpond Lease Agreement in the BFAR and also in the application for a loan in the Bank. It must be duly approved by the Bureau of Lands. A topographic survey is necessary in the planning and development of the project. A re-location survey must be conducted to check the validity of the approved plan as well as to avoid conflict in the future. An area and topographic survey done by a Geodetic Engineer will cost about [pic]400. 00 for the first hectare or a fraction thereof and [pic]50. 00 per hectare for the succeeding hectarages. Re-location survey is cheaper than the area and topographic survey. c. For the Construction of a Temporary Shelter. Experienced fishpond laborers generally do not live in the locality. To be more effective they need to have a place to stay during the construction activities. For the construction of a shelter house made of light material, assume a cost of [pic]300. 00/sq. m. of shelter. This includes materials and labor costs. d. For the Construction of Transport Facilities. Flatboats will be needed in the transport of mudblocks. A banca may be used in going to the site. Cost of construction varies from locality to locality. A flatboat with dimensions of 8†² ? 4†² ? 14†³ will cost around [pic]500. 00. A small banca will cost around [pic]600. 00. e. For Representation and Transportation Expenses. This item is not included in the cost of development of a fishpond project. However, it appears that a big amount is being incurred in representation and transportation expenses before the project is started. Example of expenditures are follow-ups of survey plan of the area, FLA application and bank loan. Other expenses are incurred in canvassing of supplies and materials, survey of manpower requirement and equipment needed in the development of a project. Representation and transportation expenses cover about 10–20 percent of pre-development cost. 5. 1. 2 Development Proper. a. For the Clearing of the Whole Area. Clearing the area of vegetation can be divided into three categories, namely: 1) cutting and chopping, 2) Falling and burning, and 3) uprooting and removal of stumps and logs. Generally, cutting and chopping costs about [pic]500. 00 per hectare; piling and burning costs about [pic]300. 00 per hectare; and for the uprooting of stumps and removal of logs, costs depend on their size and number per unit area. A hectare pond, for instance, having 200 stumps of size below 15 cm. in diameter will cost about [pic]800. 00. Stumps numbering 50 pieces with diameter over than 15 cm. will cost about [pic]1,000. 00 per hectare. Cost for the clearing depends upon the prevailing price in the locality. b. For the Construction and Installation of Gates. Cost of construction and installation of a gate can be calculated based on its design and specification proposed in the area. The two kinds of gate commonly constructed in fishponds ( concrete and wood) will be discussed separately. 1. Estimating the cost of construction and installation of a concrete gate: a. Based on the plan of a concrete gate, determine the area and volume of the walls, wings, floor, bridges, toes, aprons and cut walls and compute for the total volume using the following formula: A = L ? W V = A ? t VT = V = V1 + V2 + V3 + †¦ Where: A |= |Area |L |= |Length | |V |= |Volume |W |= |Width | |VT |= |Total volume |t |= |thickness | Determine the number of bags of cement, and the volume of gravel and sand by multiplying the total volume with the factors precomputed for a Class A mixture plus 10% allowance for wastage, thus: |No. of bag cemen t |= |(VT ? 7. 85) + 10% | |Volume of Gravel |= |(VT ? 0. 88) + 10% | |Volume of Sand |= |(VT ? 0. 44) + 10% | Class A mixture has a proportion of 1:2:4, that is one part of cement for every two parts of fine aggregate (sand) and four parts of coarse aggregate (gravel). b. Every square meter of a concrete gate uses 6. 0 m. long of reinforcement bar placed at an interval of 0. 25 m. both ways on center. This is equivalent to 1 ? bars at a standard length of 20 feet per bar. The floor and toes use the same size of bar, thus: No. of reinforcement bar = (Af + 4t) ? 1. 5 Where: Af = Area of the floor At = Area of the toes The walls, wings, etc. use two different sizes of reinforcement bar, thus: [pic] Where: Aw = Area of the walls Ax = Area of the wings An = other areas c. Find the total area of a concrete gate by adding all the areas mentioned in (a). Calculate the weight of tie wire no. 6 by multiplying the total area with a standard value per sq. m. of concrete, thus: Weight (kg) = AT ? 0. 3 Kg/sq. m. d. Calculate the volume of boulders needed by multiplying the area of the flooring with the th ickness of fill. e. Form lumber can be calculated by multiplying the area of walls, wings and bridges by 2. Plywood can also be used as form. Since lumber measurement is still in feet it should be converted into meter, (see conversion table). Use 2†³ ? 3†³ wood for form support. f. Bamboo puno could be calculated from the area of the flooring. A square meter of flooring will require more or less 20 puno staked at an interval of 0. 5 m. both ways on center. This, however, depends upon the hardness of the floor foundation. g. Screens and slabs are calculated based on the design of the concrete gate. h. Assorted nails are calculated based on the thickness of the form lumber used. i. Labor cost is 35–40% of total material cost. However, close estimates can be computed by determining the cost of labor for the construction and removal of temporary earth dike, excavation of the foundation, staking of bamboo puno, placing of boulders and gravel, construction of forms, concr eting of the gate and others. 2. Estimating the cost of construction and installation of a wooden gate. a. Based on the plan of a wooden gate, determine the size and number of lumber for the sidings and flooring. Compute for the total board feet using the following formula: [pic] Where: |L |= |Length of lumber in inches | |W |= |Width of lumber in inches | |t |= |thickness of lumber in inches | b. Based on the design and specification of the pillars and braces, compute for the total board feet using again the above formula. c. Determine the size and number of lumber needed for slabs and screen frames and compute the total board feet. d. Calculate the assorted nails (bronze) based on the lumber used. e. Calculate the coal tar requirement in gallons. f. Calculate the cost of nylon and bamboo screens. g. Calculate the labor cost at 30–40% of the material cost or calculate in detail according to the labor requirement. Calculation includes the construction, painting and installation of the wooden gate and excavation of the floor foundation. c. For the Construction of the Proposed Dikes. Dikes constructed in fishponds vary in sizes. Bigger dikes are, of course, more costly to construct than smaller dikes. In other words, the perimeter or main dike will expend more than the secondary or tertiary dikes. The cost of construction is calculated based on the volume of soil filled and generally it costs [pic]6. 00 per cubic meter. Labor cost, however, depends on the prevailing price in the locality. Transport distance of soil material to the dike is also considered in calculating the cost of construction. Long transport distance decreases individual output per day and thus will increase construction cost. Working eight hours a day, one skilled worker can finish diking, using one flat boat, based on the following distances: |10 – 100 meter distance |6 – 7 cu. m. /day | |101 – 300 meter distance |5 – 6 cu. m. day | |301 – 500 meter distance |4 – 5 cu. m. /day | d. For the Excavation and Leveling of Ponds. Cost for excavation depends upon the volume of soil left inside the pond after the dikes have been constructed. Considering that some soils have been excavated for diking purposes, only about 60% is left for excavation. Generally, escavation co sts about [pic]2. 00 per cu. m. depending upon the prevailing labor cost in the locality. After excavation, leveling of the pond bottoms follows. This involves the cut-and-fill method (excavation and dumping to low portions). Generally, leveling costs about [pic]2,000. 00 per hectare. e. For the Construction of Facilities. Facilities include the caretaker's house, working shed, bodega, chilling tanks, etc. For proper estimates there should be a simple plan of the facilities. However, rough estimates can be made based on the floor area of a house to be constructed. For a house made of light materials, assume a cost of [pic]400. 00 per sq. m. floor area; and for concrete structures, assume [pic]1,000. 00 per sq. m. All assumed costs include materials and labor based on 1979 price of materials. f. For the Purchase of Equipment. A fishpond project cannot be operated without equipment. Examples are fish nets, digging blades, shovels, scoop nets, bolos, etc. These items should be included as part of the total development cost. Such equipment should be listed and calculated. g. Contingencies. There should be a contingency fund for unforeseen expenditures, increase of prices and other materials not included in the above calculations. Assume 10% of the above costs for contingencies. 5. 1. 3 Cost estimate For the purpose of determining the cost of developing a new brackishwater fishfarm project, a typical example of a 50-hectare fishpond project applied to the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources for a 25-year Fishpond Lease Agreement is presented below. |I. Pre-Development |   | | |1. |For the preparation of feasibility study |[pic]1,000. 00 | | |2. |Re-location of boundaries |2,000. 00 | | |3. |For the construction of temporary shelter for laborers (light materials) |4,000. 00 | | |4. |For the construction of flatboats, 5 units at [pic]500. 00/unit |2,500. 00 | | |5. |For the purchase of small banca, 1 unit at [pic]600. 00 |600. 00 | | |6. For representation and transportation expenses |3,000. 00 | | |Sub-total |[pic]13,100. 00 | |II. |Development Proper |   | | |1. |Clearing of the area at [pic]600. 00/ha. (cutting, chopping, burning & removal of logs |[pic]30,000. 00 | | |2. |Construction of dikes (filling, compacting and shaping by manual labor) |   | | | |a. |Main dike along bay and river 1,920 linear meters, 6. 0 m base, 2. 0 m crown and 2. 25 m|103,680. 00 | | | | |height or a total of 17,280 cum. at [pic]6. 00/cu. | | | | |b. |Main dike along upland, 840 linear meters, 5. 5 m base, 2. 0 m crown, and 2. 0 m height |37,800. 00 | | | | |or a total of 6,300 cu. m at [pic]6. 00/cu. m | | | | |c. |Main canal dike, 980 linear meters, 5. 0 m base, 2. 0 m crown, and 1. 8 m height, or a |33,957. 00 | | | | |total of 6,174 cu. m. at [pic]5. 50/cu. m | | | | |d. |Secondary dike, 2,540 linear meters, 4. 0 m base, 1. 0 m crown & 1. 5 m heig ht or a |52,387. 50 | | | | |total of 9,525 cu. at [pic]5. 50 per cu. m | | | | |e. |Secondary canal dike, 400 linear meters, 4. 0 m base, 1. 5 m crown and 1. 4 m height, or|8,470. 00 | | | | |a total of 1,540 cu. m at [pic]5. 50 per cu. m | | | | |f. |Tertiary canal dike, 240 linear meters, 3. 5 m base, 1. 5 m crown and 1. 2 m height or a|3,600. 00 | | | | |total of 720 cu. m at [pic]5. 00 per cu. m | | | | |g. |Tertiary dike, 700 linear meters, 3. 0 m base, 1. 0 m crown and 1. m height or a total|7,000. 00 | | | | |of 1,400 cu. m at [pic]5. 00 per cu. m | | | |3. |Construction and installation of gates |   | | | |a. |Main double opening concrete gate, 2 units at [pic]20,000/unit including labor cost |40,000. 00 | | | |b. |Construction and installation of 10 units secondary wooden gates at [pic]3,000. 00 per|30,000. 00 | | | | |unit | | | | |c. Construction and installation of 15 units tertiary wooden gates at [pic]1,500/unit |22,500. 00 | | |4. |Excavation and levelling of pond bottoms (cut-and-fill) |   | | | |a. |Nursery Pond, 1. 5 ha at [pic]2,000/hectare |3,000. 00 | | | |b. |Transition Pond, 4. 0 ha at [pic]2,000/ha |8,000. 00 | | | |c. |Formation Pond, 8. 0 ha at [pic]2,000/ha |16,000. 00 | | | |d. |Rearing Pond, 32. 0 ha at [pic]2,000/ha |64,000. 00 | | |5. Uprooting and removal of stumps at [pic]600/ha |30,000. 00 | | |6. |For the construction of facilities |   | | | |a. |Caretaker's Hut made of light materials, 2 units at [pic]6,000/unit |12,000. 00 | | | |b. |Bodega, made of light materials for inputs and equipment, 1 unit |5,000. 00 | | | |c. |Chilling tank with shed, made of light materials |3,000. 00 | | |7. |For the purchase of equipment |   | | | |a. Nets for harvesting |3,000. 00 | | | |b. |Digging blades and carpentry tools |1,000. 00 | | | |c. |Containers |2,000. 00 | | |8. |Contingencies (10% of cost) |52,350. 05 | | |Sub-total |[pic]562,750. 55 | | |T O T A L |[pic]575,850. 55 | ESTIMATED COST FOR ONE UNIT DOUBLE OPENING MAIN CONCRETE GATE |I. Cost of Materials | | |   | |Quantity |Unit Price |Amount | | |1. |Cement |140 bags |[pic]24. 00/bag |[pic]3,360. 00 | | |2. |Sand |10 cu. m. |60. 00/cu. m |600. 00 | | |3. |Gravel |20 cu. m |80. 00/cu. m |1,600. 00 | | |4. |Boulders |8 cu. m |50. 00/cu. m |400. 00 | | |5. Reinforcement Bar | | | |a) ? ? ? 20†² |80 pcs |22. 00/pc |1,760. 00 | | | |b) ? 3/8 ? 20†² |35 pcs |12. 00/pc |420. 00 | | |6. |Plywood form |49 pcs |48. 00/pc |2,352. 00 | | | |(? ? 4†² ? 8†³) | | | | | |7. |Lumber (S4S) | | | |a) 2†³ ? 2†³ ? 12†² |30 pcs |3. 0/bd. ft |360. 00 | | | |b) 2†³ ? 3†³ ? 12†² |16 pcs |3. 00/bd. ft |288. 00 | | | |c) 1†³ ? 2†³ ? 12†² |10 pcs |3. 00/bd. ft |60. 00 | | | |d) 1†³ ? 12†³ ? 12†² |6 pcs |3. 00/bd. ft |216. 00 | | |8. |Assorted Nails |10 kgs |7. 50/kg |75. 00 | | |9. |G. I. Wire #16 |20 kgs |8. 00/kg |160. 00 | | |10. Bamboo Puno |400 pcs |4. 00/pc |1,600. 00 | | |Sub-tot al |[pic]13,251. 00 | |II. |Labor (40% of material cost) |5,300. 00 | |III. |Contingencies (10% of material cost) |1,325. 00 | | |T O T A L |[pic]19,876. 00 | | |say |[pic]20,000. 00 | ESTIMATED COST FOR ONE UNIT SECONDARY WOODEN GATE |I. Cost of Materials | | |   |   |Description |Quantity |Unit Price |Amount | | |1. |Ply Board |1†³? 10†³? 14†² |34 pcs. |[pic]3. 00/bd. ft|[pic]1,190. 00| | | | | | |. | | | | | |1†³? 10†³? 8†² |3 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |60. 00 | | |2. |Slabs |1†³? 12†³? 14†² |2 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |84. 00 | | |3. |Pillars and   Braces |2†³? 3†³? 10†² |4 pcs. 3. 00/bd. ft. |60. 00 | | | | |2†³? 3†³? 8†² |7 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |84. 00 | | | | |2†³? 3†³? 14†² |2 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |42. 00 | | | | |3†³? 4†³? 10†² |12 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |360. 00 | | |4. |Screen Frames |2†³? 3†³? 16†² |2 pcs. |3. 00/bd. ft. |48. 00

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